Covariant and gauge-invariant metric-based gravitational-waves extraction in numerical relativity

We revisit the problem of gravitational-wave extraction in numerical relativity with gauge-invariant metric perturbation theory of spherical spacetimes. Our extraction algorithm allows the computation of even-parity (Zerilli-Moncrief) and odd-parity (Regge-Wheeler) multipoles of the strain from a (3 þ 1) metric without the assumption that the spherical background is in Schwarzschild coordinates. The algorithm is validated with a comprehensive suite of three-dimensional problems including fluid (f-modes) and spacetime (w-modes) perturbations of neutron stars, gravitational collapse of rotating neutron stars, circular binary black holes mergers and black hole dynamical captures, and binary neutron star mergers. We find that metric extraction is robust in all the considered scenarios and delivers waveforms of overall quality similar to curvature (Weyl) extraction. Metric extraction is particularly valuable in identifying waveform systematics for problems in which the reconstruction of the strain from the Weyl multipoles is ambiguous. Direct comparison of different choices for the gauge-invariant master functions show very good agreement in the even-parity sector. Instead, in the odd-parity sector, assuming the background in Schwarzschild coordinates can minimize gauge effects related to the use of the Γ-driver shift. Moreover, for optimal choices of the extraction radius, a simple extrapolation to null infinity can deliver waveforms compatible to Cauchy-characteristic extrapolated waveforms.