Four birds with one stone? opportunities and challenges in adopting solar irrigation for a sustainable water-energy-food nexus with carbon credits

Carbon emission-led climate change affects food security. Although irrigation builds climate resilience and supports the stability of the water–energy–food (WEF) nexus, irrigation access and reliability are constrained by energy access, whereas increasing energy demand exacerbates carbon emissions. This feedback demonstrates the need to include carbon in the nexus, leading to a WEF–carbon (WEFC) nexus. Solar irrigation can be a four-way win, as it contributes to positive water, energy and food interactions without increasing carbon emissions. This paper empirically assesses farmer-owned solar irrigation in Gujarat, India, and identifies mechanisms for mainstreaming solar irrigation and stakeholders’ roles in the WEFC nexus.